How do ferns primarily reproduce?

Ferns primarily reproduce by forming spores. This method of reproduction is a key characteristic of ferns and differentiates them from seed plants. Ferns belong to a group of plants known as pteridophytes, which utilize a life cycle that includes both a sporophyte (the leafy plant we typically recognize as a fern) and a gametophyte stage.

In ferns, the sporophyte produces spores in specialized structures called sporangia, typically found on the undersides of leaves. When these spores are released and settle in a suitable environment, they can germinate and develop into a small, heart-shaped gametophyte, which is capable of producing gametes for sexual reproduction. This life cycle demonstrates that spores are essential to how ferns propagate and establish new individuals, emphasizing their reliance on this asexual method over seed production.